Helvetius: Seeing the enormous mental inequality of people, we must first of all recognize that minds are as different as bodies ... But this reasoning is based only on analogy. The obvious inequality between the minds of different people cannot be considered proof of their unequal capacity for mental development ... What is the mind in itself? The ability to notice similarities and differences, correspondences and inconsistencies between different objects.
Diderot: But is this ability innate, or is it acquired?
Helvetius: Born.
Diderot: And is it the same for all people?
Helvetius: All normally organized people.
Diderot: And what lies at the basis of it?
Helvetius: physical sensitivity.
Diderot: What about sensitivity?
Helvetius: It is an ability whose action changes only under the influence of upbringing, accidents and interest.
A .: So, here Helvetius (more precisely, expounding his views of Diderot) points to three factors that lead to inequality of minds with the initial equality of human natural abilities. Next, we will consider them in more detail.
Diderot: Does the organization, unless it is monstrously perverted, play no role here?
Helvetius: No.
Diderot: What do you see as the difference between man and animal?
Helvetius: In the organisation...
Diderot: And you don't see all your inconsistency?
Helvetius: What other inconsistency?
Diderot: You reduce the difference between the two extreme links of the animal chain - man and animal - to a difference in organization and use the same reason to explain the difference between dogs, but reject it when it comes to the difference between people in terms of intelligence, insight and intelligence ... .
A .: So, even purely logically, if the difference between two animals in terms of their mental functions is due to the difference in their nervous organization, then why not assume this in relation to people who are a link in the chain of living organisms?
Helvetius: I considered intelligence, talent and virtue as a product of education.
Diderot: Imagine five hundred newborn babies; you are trusted to raise them as you see fit. Tell me, how many of them will you make geniuses? Why not all five hundred? Think carefully about your answers, and you will be convinced that in the end they will lead you to a difference in organization, this primary source of laziness, frivolity, stubbornness and other vices or passions ... Prince Golitsyn has two children: a kind, meek and simple-hearted boy and a sly, cunning girl, always getting her way in a roundabout way. Their mother is devastated by this. Whatever she did to teach her daughter to be frank, and all to no avail. Where does this difference come from between two children, barely four years old, who were raised and cared for in the same way by their parents? Whether Mimi corrects herself or not, her brother Dmitry will never be able to maneuver among court intrigues like she does. The teacher's lesson can never be compared with the lesson of nature.
Helvetius: No one receives the same education, for everyone is mentors ... and the form of government under which he lives, and his friends, and his mistresses, and the people around him, and the books he read, and, finally, chance, that is, an infinite number of events, the cause and concatenation of which we cannot indicate due to ignorance of them.
S: And which one is right?
A.: As has happened many times in the history of scientific thought, both opinions reflect only different aspects of a single process. Later Sergei Leonidovich Rubinshtein would express this pattern in the classical formula: "External causes act through internal conditions." Of course, Diderot is right when he speaks of differences in innate predisposition, inclinations. But Helvetius is also right, who emphasizes the role of external conditions, including the "form of government" in the state, in the development of people's abilities.
Helvetius: Peoples groaning under the yoke of unlimited power can have only short-term successes, only flashes of glory; sooner or later they will fall under the rule of a free and enterprising people. But even if we assume that they will be spared this danger due to exceptional circumstances and situation, then bad management is already enough to destroy them, depopulate them and turn them into a desert [Ibid., p. 632].
A.: Helvetius is also right in that even if two twins are allegedly "identical" upbringing, this upbringing is still not the same: and this was proved by subsequent empirical studies of the psychology of upbringing and development of twins.
Helvetius: Chance plays an important role in the formation of character... Genius is the product of chance ... It is chance that puts known objects before our eyes, therefore, it causes us to have especially successful ideas and sometimes leads us to great discoveries.
Chance is the master of all inventors.
Diderot: Mister? Say better "servant", for he serves them, and not vice versa. Do you think that chance led Newton from the falling pear to the motion of the moon, and from the motion of the moon to the system of the universe? So chance would lead to the same discovery for anyone else? Newton himself thought of it differently. When asked how he came to his discovery, he answered: "Through reflection" [Ibid.].
A: Again, the truth lies somewhere in the middle. And the case plays an important role in the apparent sudden "enlightenment" of the scientist, but only on condition that he had previously thought about it for a long time. This is shown by modern research in the psychology of thinking.
Helvetius: Competition creates geniuses, and the desire to become famous creates talents ... The inequality of minds comes not so much from the too unequal distribution of the gifts of chance, but from the indifference with which they are received.
Diderot: My dear philosopher, don't say that; say rather that these reasons give them the opportunity to manifest themselves, and no one will argue with you.
Competition and desire do not create genius where there is none.
There are a thousand things that seem to me so beyond my powers that neither the hope of winning the throne, nor even the desire to save my life, would induce me to seek them, and there was not a moment in my whole life when my feelings and thoughts would shake me in this. persuasion.
A .: And again, both are right: passion plays an extremely large role in the development of abilities; very often a person is so in love with his own business that he acquires the necessary knowledge and skills as if effortlessly and quickly develops his abilities; but there is also an opposite picture, when a child is forced to study by force at first, and despite this, geniuses appear; a classic example is Paganini, who was literally forced by his father to play the violin as a child.
I will not dissemble: despite the fact that in these dialogues the extreme positions of both authors appear, both of them in their works often express themselves in the aforementioned compromise sense and therefore their views should be considered only as certain tendencies in understanding this or that problem...
Well, we went over the main problems of the French empirical psychology of consciousness of the 18th century, which developed the problem of the experimental origin of mental functions, emphasized the role of internal conditions (needs, activity of the subject, abilities, and so on) in the functioning of consciousness. This distinguished it from the English associative psychology that you and I discussed earlier.
S: What's going on in Germany?
A .: But we will talk about German empirical psychology a little later, when we touch on the problem of unconscious mental processes, because this problem was developed mainly by German-speaking authors ...
Literature
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Pedagogical theories J.-J. Rousseau.
Main pedagogical ideas:
A person from birth is kind and ready for happiness, he is endowed with natural inclinations, and the purpose of education is to preserve and develop the natural data of the child. The ideal is a person unspoiled by society and upbringing in his natural state.
Natural education is carried out primarily by nature, nature is the best teacher, everything around the child serves as a textbook. Lessons are given by nature, not by people. The sensory experience of the child underlies the knowledge of the world, on its basis the pupil himself creates science.
Freedom is a condition of natural education, the child does what he wants, and not what he is prescribed and ordered to do. But he wants what the teacher wants from him.
The teacher, imperceptibly for the child, arouses his interest in classes and the desire to learn.
Nothing is imposed on the child: neither science nor rules of conduct; but he, driven by interest, gains experience from which conclusions are formulated.
Sensory knowledge and experience become sources of scientific knowledge, which leads to the development of thinking. To develop the mind of the child and the ability to acquire knowledge himself, and not hammer it in ready-made - this task should be guided in teaching.
Education is a delicate, without the use of violence, the direction of the free activity of the educated, the development of his natural inclinations and capabilities.
Rousseau's pedagogical theory was never embodied in the form in which the author imagined it, but he left ideas that were accepted by other enthusiasts, developed further and used in different ways in the practice of education and training,
The treatise novel "Emil, or On Education" is the main pedagogical work of Rousseau, it is entirely devoted to the presentation of his views on education; in it, reasonable upbringing is understood by Rousseau as a way of social reorganization. There are two characters in the novel - Emil (from birth to 25 years old) and the educator who has spent all these years with him, acting as parents. Emil is brought up far from a society that corrupts people, outside the social environment, in the bosom of nature.
Pedagogical views of Claude Adrian Helvetia(1715-1771). In 1758, the famous book of Helvetius "On the Mind" was published. The authorities condemned and banned this book, as directed against religion and the existing system. The book was publicly burned. Helvetius went abroad and at that time wrote a new work - "On Man, His Mental Abilities and His Education" (published in 1773). Helvetia
believed that all representations and concepts in humans are formed on the basis of sensory perceptions. He attached great importance to the formation of man under the influence of the environment. He pointed out that the feudal system cripples people. The church corrupts human characters. Helvetius considered it necessary to formulate a single goal of education for all citizens. This goal is to strive for the good of the whole society, for the greatest pleasure and happiness of the greatest number of citizens. Helvetius argued that all people are equally capable of education, since they are born with the same spiritual abilities. Helvetius believed that a person is formed only under the influence of the environment and upbringing. At the same time, he interpreted the concept of "education" very broadly. By education, Helvetia “understands not only education in the usual sense of the word, but also the totality of all the conditions of an individual's life ...”1. Helvetius stated that "upbringing makes us what we are", and even more: "Education can do anything." Broad education of the people is necessary, it is necessary to re-educate people. G. hoped that as a result of education and upbringing, a person free from prejudices would be created. Pedagogical views of Denis Diderot (1713-1784). His writings were met with hostility by the authorities. As soon as his work “Letters on the Blind for the Edification of the Sighted” was published, Diderot was arrested. Diderot decisively refutes Helvetius's position that education can do everything. He believes that much can be achieved by upbringing, but upbringing develops what nature has given the child. Through education, it is possible to develop good natural inclinations and drown out bad ones, but only if education takes into account the physical organization of a person, his natural characteristics.
Diderot believed that not only the elite had good natural inclinations; he, on the contrary, argued that the people are much more often the bearer of talents than representatives of the nobility.
Like Helvetius, Diderot strongly criticized the French feudal system of education, emphasizing that the elementary schools, which are in the hands of the clergy, neglect the education of children from the people, and the privileged secondary schools of the classical type bring up only an aversion to the sciences and make insignificant results.
Denis Diderot(1713-1784), French philosopher, educator, writer. He studied at the Jesuit College, received the title of Master of Arts. Diderot's first philosophical writings were burned by decision of the French parliament (for criticizing the Christian religion and the church in the spirit of deism, he was arrested for spreading "dangerous thoughts"). In 1773-74. visited Russia, at the suggestion of Catherine II participated in the development of a democratic program of upbringing and education in Russia. Wrote the "Plan of the University, or School of Public Teaching of Sciences for the Russian Government".
The most prominent representative of French materialism of the 18th century. The inspirer, organizer and one of the main authors of the famous "Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts", whose main task was to promote natural science knowledge - the strongest weapon against traditional ideology. D. Diderot highly appreciated the role of education in shaping a person. He urged in the process of education to take into account its anatomical and physiological features, as well as the social conditions in which the formation of the personality takes place. Diderot outlined new principles for the organization of education: the universality and free of charge of education, its classlessness, secularism. He expressed his views on the content of the school curriculum, taking into account the interconnection and interdependence of sciences. He called on scientists to compile evidence-based textbooks, offered a differentiated approach to learning, and encouraged capable students. He paid special attention to the selection of teachers who, in his opinion, had all the necessary qualities. To these qualities, he attributed, first of all, a deep knowledge of the subject, honesty, responsiveness and love for children.
Topic 7: New time (continued).
Pedagogical thought in France of the 18th century.
Claude Adrian Helvetius, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
By the middle of the XVIII century. there was a powerful upsurge of social thought in France, known in history under the name French Enlightenment . This movement was formed under the influence of the English Enlightenment, which arose earlier, and prepared the spiritual ground for the French Revolution of the 18th century. Continuing the humanistic traditions of the Renaissance, the figures of the Enlightenment considered it their task to substantiate the need to restructure society according to the requirements of reason, the realization of "natural", innate human rights through the enlightenment of the people.
The education system in France in the 18th century did not provide an opportunity for the implementation of the ideas of the enlighteners. As in other European countries, its main task was religious and moral education; scholasticism and drill reigned in traditional schools, which in no way corresponded to the ideas of the enlighteners who dreamed of educating people who were able to build their lives on reasonable grounds. Among this group of thinkers, K.A. Helvetia and D. Diderot.
Claude Adrian Helvetius(1715-1771) - French philosopher, figure of the Enlightenment, ideologist of the revolutionary bourgeoisie, sensualist, atheist. He outlined his pedagogical ideas in the essays “On the Mind” and “On Man, His Mental Abilities and His Education”.
In the book "About a man, his mental abilities and his upbringing" the term "education" was interpreted broadly, meaning by it the totality of all the conditions of an individual's life.
A means for creating universal happiness K.A. Helvetius considered changing laws and improving education. The purpose of education is not preparation for an eternal afterlife, but “the desire for the good of society, i.e. to the greatest pleasure and happiness of the greatest number of citizens."
Differences in human views, ideas, mental abilities, he associated exclusively with the influence of the external environment, not recognizing the innate abilities of man. According to Helvetius, there are no innate ideas, a person is a product of the environment, from birth he is neither stupid, nor smart, nor evil, nor kind. He is just ignorant and uneducated. People have the same abilities, Helvetius believed. Education makes us different. “A person is a product of circumstances and upbringing.” Differences in the abilities of people are a consequence of differences in the conditions of education. Helvetius examines in detail the upbringing of a child in a family, a teenager at school, and a young man in a wide social environment.
In the process of education, in the first place, he put the formation of interests, "passions", and not mental development. "Rivers do not flow backwards, and people do not go against the fast flow of their interests". The main condition for the successful upbringing of K.A. Helvetius considered the coincidence of interests of the rulers and the people. From this followed his idea of social education. The well-being of any society depends on the talents and virtues of its citizens, which in turn depend on education. Society can direct the formation of talents and virtues and thus determine its own well-being in the present and future. Schools must be taken out of the hands of the clergy. Schools should be organized by the state.
In the views of Helvetius, four main ideas stand out:
The innate equality of all people;
Personal interest is the driving force of individual development and the decisive principle in the activities of people;
Education is the guiding force in the development of interests;
The political system determines the nature of education.
The ideal of a person, according to Helvetius, is an atheist, free from prejudices, able to combine personal happiness with the welfare of the nation.
The most striking figure among the philosophers of the Enlightenment was, perhaps, Denis Diderot (1713-1784), who was the inspirer, organizer, editor and one of the main authors of the famous "Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts", whose main task was to promote natural science knowledge - the strongest weapon against traditional ideology. One day, Diderot was asked to edit a translation of Chambers' English Encyclopedia (technical reference). He had the idea to supplement this book with new articles. He attracted to the work of Voltaire, Montesquieu, D, Alamber and Rousseau. So one of the most famous books of the 18th century came out. For political and philosophical articles, she was immediately banned. Voltaire said that one day at dinner, King Louis XV had a dispute about how gunpowder was made. Nobody could give an exact answer. Then they brought the corresponding volume of the forbidden "Encyclopedia" and found out the question. Madame Pompadour was interested in what blush is made of. The answer was also found in the Encyclopedia. One of the courtiers complained that the publication of this book was forbidden. The king had to make excuses that one of the clergy convinced him that this was a very dangerous book. Thus Diderot was able to continue publishing. Work on the "Encyclopedia" lasted about thirty years and had a huge impact on the minds of all of Europe in the 18th century.
In his work "Systematic refutation of the book of Helvetius" Man "(On Man ...) D. Diderot criticized K.A. Helvetius for underestimating the inclinations inherent in man by nature. D. Diderot highly appreciated the role of education in shaping a person. But he urged to take into account in the process of education both the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the child, as well as the social conditions in which the formation of the personality takes place.
Emphasizing the enormous role of education in the life of society, he admitted that "education develops only what nature has given: it develops good inclinations, drowns out the bad ones." And an unjust social order stifles the most beautiful inclinations in a person.
Like all French enlighteners, he criticized the modern education system. D. Diderot outlined new principles for organizing education:
universality and
free education,
his dishonesty,
secularity.
In an era when public education in France was the work of the Church, Diderot designed a state system of public education, built on the principle of classlessness. He was convinced that the children of the poor, accustomed to work from an early age, study more seriously and diligently than the children of the rich. In order to make the school more accessible, Diderot considered it necessary to help needy children financially (give out free textbooks, scholarships, meals at school, etc.).
Diderot was a supporter real education, believing that it is necessary to expand the volume of teaching mathematics, physics, astronomy, chemistry at the school by reducing the teaching of ancient languages. He said that the spread and deepening natural sciences knowledge provides a connection with the needs of life and production.
Diderot thought a lot about what the modern education system should be like. They were offered three types of educational institutions: elementary school - secondary school - university. At the request of Catherine II, Diderot developed "University Plan for the Russian Government"(1775), meaning by the university the whole system of education. During his stay in St. Petersburg, he wrote a number of notes: "About a School for Young Girls", "About Public Schools" and others, in which it affects various aspects of education and upbringing.
Diderot highly valued the thoroughness of knowledge. He wrote: “It is better to know a little, but well, and even not to know anything at all, than to know badly.” He attached great importance to good textbooks, to the writing of which he proposed to involve prominent scientists in order to compile evidence-based textbooks.
He offered a differentiated approach to learning, to encourage capable students.
In order to improve the level of knowledge of students, he recommended 4 times a year to organize public examinations at school with the invitation of parents and honored guests.
The French Enlighteners assigned a special role in the education of the younger generation to the teacher and made high demands on him. Diderot was convinced that the teacher, in addition to knowing his subject, must have high moral qualities such as honesty, responsiveness and love for children. The teacher's task is to instill in each pupil such qualities as firmness, justice, develop the mind, outlook, instill a taste for everything "true, beautiful, great, good."
Recognizing the need for education for the whole people, D. Diderot advocated the abolition of class restrictions in secondary and higher education and proposed the creation of a new system of public schools that would provide free universal primary education.
The theory of free (natural) education Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
One of the brightest representatives of the French Enlightenment was J.J. Rousseau (1712-1778). Having not received a systematic education, thanks to work and constant self-education, Rousseau became one of the most enlightened people of his time. Of the many works written by him, three are singled out, forming a single whole and in a concentrated form representing his philosophical and pedagogical views. These are works: "Discourse on the origin and foundations of inequality between people"(1755), "Discourse on the Arts and Sciences"(1762), "Emil, or On Education"(1762).
According to Rousseau, the first stage of mankind was the "state of nature", when people lived freely, disunitedly and in harmony with nature. Private property, inequality, vices were unknown to them. The growth of needs forced people to unite with their brethren and conclude a social contract that marked the beginning of the emergence of private property, laws, property inequality, oppression and vices. Departing from their natural state, people turned out to be subject to unhealthy passions: greed, ambition, money-grubbing, etc. The further human civilization develops, the more rapidly a person leaves his natural state, in which he was happy. People can recreate a semblance of natural order if they establish equality, give up luxury, and settle in nature. It is possible to change the social structure either through revolution or through enlightenment. Education is the backbone of any form of government. The well-being of the state and the individual depends on the right upbringing.
The task of education Rousseau saw in the upbringing of a person, this is the fundamental difference between his interpretation of the goal of upbringing and the old upbringing, which set as its goal the preparation of a person for a specific profession, for a certain position in society. According to Rousseau, "it is necessary to educate, first of all, a person, and not an official, not a soldier, not a judge, not a scientist." The view of the French thinker on education as a common human cause was, of course, progressive, but in contemporary conditions, the implementation of this idea was not feasible. Rousseau gave a portrait of a perfect man who must have the mind of a sage, the strength of an athlete, diligence, immunity to the temptations of civilization and bad influences, the ability to control himself, to measure his desires and abilities. From childhood, a child needs to be taught life, the ability to withstand the blows of fate. Rousseau wrote in this regard: “To live does not mean to breathe, but it means to act, to use our organs, feelings, abilities. Not the person who lived more, who is older, but the one who felt life more.
According to Rousseau, a person is educated under the influence of three forces: nature, things and people. Nature endows the individual with abilities. The surrounding world influences consciousness through sensations and experience. People help or hinder the disclosure of the natural inclinations of the child.
Rousseau criticized the contemporary system of education, believing that it does not contribute to the development of children, but spoils them. Instead of the traditional system of education, he proposed an alternative: raising a child in the bosom of nature, away from society, from culture with its artificiality. It is characteristic that the system of education proposed by Rousseau did not apply to the children of the poor, who, in his opinion, did not need to be educated, because they were educated by life itself.
In a pedagogical treatise "Emil, or On Education" a program for raising a child from a wealthy family is presented. Emil is an orphan. The teacher takes him away from the city and lives with him for many years, leading his pupil through the main periods of life: infancy, childhood, adolescence, youth. The treatise has five parts, the first four describe the stages of Emil's development, the fifth deals with Sophie, his life partner. Already in the very composition of the treatise, the main idea of the author is revealed: the child is a developing being and his life is a change of age stages. For each age stage, special tasks and means of education are provided (Table 2.3).
Helvetius (1715-1771) became famous as the author of the book "On the Mind", which was published in 1758 and provoked fierce attacks from all the forces of reaction, the ruling circles. The book was banned and sentenced to be burned. Helvetius developed his ideas even more thoroughly in the book “On Man, His Intellectual Abilities and His Education”. This book, written in 1769, in order to avoid new persecution, Helvetius bequeathed to be published only after his death, and it was published in 1773.
In his writings, Helvetius, for the first time in the history of pedagogy, quite fully revealed the factors that form a person. As a sensualist, he argued that all representations and concepts in humans are formed on the basis of sensory perceptions, and reduced thinking to the ability to feel.
He considered the most important factor in the formation of man the influence of the environment. A person is a product of circumstances (social environment) and upbringing, Helvetius argued.
Pointing to the enormous role of education in the reorganization of society, Helvetius formulated a single goal of education for all citizens. He saw it in striving for the good of the whole society, in reconciling the personal interest of each person with the "good of the nation." While affirming the omnipotence of upbringing, he denied individual differences in children.
The atheist Helvetius demanded that public education be wrested from the hands of the clergy and made absolutely secular. He proposed to put an end to the dominance of Latin in schools and equip students with real knowledge: they should thoroughly study natural science subjects, their native language, history, morality, politics, and poetry.
Sharply condemning the scholastic methods of teaching in the feudal school, Helvetius demanded that the teaching be visual and, if possible, based on the personal experience of the child, the educational material, he believed, should become simple and understandable to the student.
Helvetius recognized the right of all people to education, believed that women should receive education equal to men.
Helvetius convincingly argued the advantages of public education over family education. Only in secular schools, which are in the hands of the state, he argued, it is possible to ensure the proper selection of teachers, accustom children to the observance of firm order, and educate true patriots. Rightly insisting that teachers should be enlightened people, he considered it necessary to improve their financial situation, to surround them with universal respect.
The child, according to Helvetius, is not born good or evil, it is made one way or another by the social environment and upbringing. The doctrine of Helvetius was historically progressive and served as one of the ideological sources of utopian socialism.
Pedagogical ideas of Denis Diderot
Denis Diderot (1713-1784) is one of the most prominent French materialists of the 18th century. Like all representatives of this trend, Diderot was a materialist from below (in the explanation of nature) and an idealist from above (in the interpretation of social phenomena). He recognized the materiality of the world, considered movement inseparable from matter, the world is knowable, and resolutely opposed religion.
Standing on the positions of materialistic sensationalism, Diderot considered the source of knowledge to be sensations. But unlike Helvetius, he did not reduce the complex process of cognition to them, but recognized that its second step is the processing of sensations by the mind. He also believed that "opinions rule the world", and mistakenly associated the possibility of reorganizing society not with a revolution, but with the publication of wise laws and the spread of enlightenment, with proper education. He outlined his thoughts on education mainly in the work “Systematic refutation of the book of Helvetius“ On Man ”.
Diderot rejected the assertion of Helvetius about the omnipotence of education and the absence of individual natural differences in people. He sought to limit the extreme conclusions reached by Helvetius
Recognizing that much can be achieved with the help of education, Diderot noted the importance for the formation of a person of his physical organization, his anatomical and physiological characteristics. He also disagreed with the position of Helvetius that thinking can be reduced to the ability to feel. Mental operations depend, according to Diderot, on a certain state and organization of the brain. People have, he said, different natural inclinations and features; the natural organization, the physiological characteristics of people predispose their natural inclinations to development, but their manifestation depends entirely on social causes, including education. Diderot rightly believed that the educator would be able to achieve great results if he strived to develop the positive inclinations inherent in the child by nature and drown out the bad ones. Diderot's call to take into account the natural characteristics of the child, to develop his individuality deserves a positive assessment.
Diderot rightly asserted that all people are endowed with favorable inclinations by nature, and not just the elect. Moreover, he said that people from the people are much more likely to be carriers of genius and talent than representatives of the nobility: . one for the fact that genius, talent and virtue will sooner come out of the walls of a hut than from the walls of a palace. The vicious social system, according to Diderot, deprives the children of the people of a good upbringing and education and is the cause of the death of many hidden talents. The great educator advocated universal, free primary education “from the first minister to the last peasant”, for everyone to be able to read, write and count. He proposed to remove the schools from the jurisdiction of the church and transfer them to the hands of the state; who should take care of the accessibility of the school, organize material assistance to the children of the poor, free food, etc. Protesting against the class organization of education, Diderot wrote that the doors of schools should be “equally open to all the children of the people ... because it would be just as cruel, how absurd to doom to ignorance. people who occupy a lower position in society.
Diderot rebelled against the dominance in the schools of classical education and brought real knowledge to the fore; in high school, he believed, all students should study mathematics, physics, and the natural sciences, as well as the humanities.
Paying great attention to the teacher, Diderot demanded that he deeply know the subject he teaches, be modest, honest and have other high moral qualities. He offered to create good material conditions for the teacher, to take care of him in case of illness and disability.
The pedagogical views of the French materialists of the 18th century, inextricably linked with their philosophical conception, reflected on the eve of the revolution of 1789 the demands of the bourgeoisie in the field of education. They found their expression in the most advanced projects for the organization of public education, created during the period of the French bourgeois revolution, and were further developed on a different social basis by the utopian socialists.
13. Philosophical and psychological foundations of Herbart's pedagogy. Herbart made an attempt to develop a system of pedagogical science based on idealistic philosophy, mainly ethics and psychology. In his worldview, Herbart was a metaphysician. He argued that the world consists of an infinite number of eternal entities - reals, which are inaccessible to human knowledge. The idea of people about the variability of the world, he said, is illusory, being, the essence of being are unchanged. Herbart had a negative attitude towards the French bourgeois revolution and the progressive movement that arose under its influence in the advanced strata of German society. He dreamed of the time when the upheavals and changes would end, they would be replaced by "a stable order and a measured and orderly life." He sought through his activities in the field of philosophical sciences (he included psychology, ethics and pedagogy) to contribute to the establishment of such a stable life order. Herbart derived his understanding of the essence of education from idealistic philosophy, and the goal of education from ethics. Herbart developed an extremely metaphysical ethical theory. Public and personal morality rests, according to him, on eternal and unchanging moral ideas. These ideas constitute, according to Herbart, the basis of a non-class, universal morality, which was supposed to strengthen the social relations and moral norms that dominated the Prussian monarchy. Herbart's psychological teaching, based on idealistic and metaphysical philosophy, is generally anti-scientific, but some of his statements in the field of psychology are of a certain scientific interest. Following Pestolozzi, who sought to find its elements in any complex phenomenon, Herbart decomposed human mental activity into its component parts and tried to isolate the element that is the simplest, primary. Herbart considered representation to be such a simple element. He incorrectly asserted that all human mental functions: emotion, will, thinking, imagination, etc., are modified representations. Herbart considered psychology to be the science of representations, their appearance, combinations, and disappearance. He believed that the human soul does not initially have any properties. The content of human consciousness is determined by the formation and further movement of ideas that enter into certain relationships according to the laws of association. The concepts of association and apperception introduced by Herbart have survived in modern psychology. A mass of ideas, as it were, crowds in the soul of a person, trying to break into the field of consciousness. Those representations that are related to those existing in the field of consciousness penetrate there, those that are not supported by them weaken, become invisible and are pushed beyond the threshold of consciousness. The whole mental life of a person depends, according to Herbart, on initial ideas, reinforced by experience, communication, and education. Thus, understanding is determined by the relationship of representations. A person understands when an object or word evokes a certain circle of ideas in his mind. If no representations arise in response to them, they remain incomprehensible. The relationship of representations explains all the phenomena of the emotional sphere of the psyche, as well as the area of volitional manifestations. Feelings, according to Herbart, are nothing but delayed representations. When there is a harmony of ideas in the soul, a pleasant feeling arises, and if the ideas are not in harmony with each other, then a feeling of unpleasantness arises. Desire, like feeling, is again a reflection of the relationship between representations. Will is a desire, to which the idea of achieving the goal is attached. So, Herbart ignores the uniqueness of the various properties of the human psyche. He unjustifiably reduces the complex and diverse, deeply dialectical process of mental activity to mechanical combinations of ideas. By influencing the child's ideas, he expects thereby to exert a corresponding influence on the formation of his consciousness, feelings, and will. From this it followed from Herbart that properly delivered training has an educative character.
14.t AK, one of the founders of the didactics of primary education, a Swiss teacher Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi(1746–1827), who completed two courses at the Collegium Karolinum, was active in educational activities, organized a number of orphanages for children from the poorest environment, where orphans lived and studied. I.G. Pestalozzi was the author of works that reflected his pedagogical ideas: "Lingard and Gertrude" (1781-1787), "How Gertrude teaches her children" (1801), "Letter to a friend about his stay in Stanz" (1799), "Swan Song" (1826). The pedagogical heritage of Pestalozzi was analyzed by A.P. Pinkevich, E.H. Medynsky, V.A. Rotenberg and others.
Developing the idea of the relationship between upbringing, learning and development, the teacher proceeded from the recognition of the decisive role of upbringing in the development of the child's personality from the moment of his birth. The essence of developing and nurturing education was expressed by I.G. Pestalozzi in his theory of "elementary education", which was intended for elementary education. Elementary education implies such an organization of learning, in which the simplest elements are distinguished in the objects of cognition and activity, which allows you to constantly move from simple to more and more complex, bringing children's knowledge to possible perfection. The teacher identifies the following simple elements of cognitive activity: number (the simplest element of a number is one), shape (the simplest element of a form is a line), names of objects indicated using words (the simplest element of a word is sound).
The purpose of training I.G. Pestalozzi defines it as the excitation of the mind of children to vigorous activity, the development of their cognitive abilities, the development of their ability to think logically and briefly express in words the essence of the concepts they have learned. Thus, the method of "elementary education" is a certain system of exercises for the development of the child's abilities. Pestalozzi developed this technique, guided by the following ideas: 1) a child from birth has inclinations, internal potential forces, which are characterized by a desire for development; 2) the many-sided and diverse activity of children in the learning process is the basis for the development and improvement of internal forces, their mental development; 3) the activity of the child in cognitive activity is a necessary condition for the assimilation of knowledge, a more perfect knowledge of the world. Such developmental and educative education should facilitate the transition of children from disordered and vague impressions to clear concepts.
I.G. Pestalozzi expanded the content of primary education, including information from geography and natural history, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and the beginning of geometry. The teacher believed that speech should be developed systematically and consistently, starting with sounds and their combinations in syllables, through the development of various speech forms while enriching and deepening the child's ideas about the world around him. Pestalozzi suggested starting teaching counting not with memorizing arithmetic rules, but with combinations of single objects and forming on this basis ideas about the properties of numbers. He divided the study of form into teaching children to measure (geometry), drawing and writing.
The idea of developmental education K.D. Ushinsky called "the great discovery of Pestalozzi." The teacher considered the main goal of training not to master the knowledge presented by the teacher, but to excite the mind of children to active activity, develop their cognitive abilities, the ability to think logically and express the essence of the concepts they have learned. Isolation of the developmental function of learning posed fundamentally new tasks for the teacher: the development of clear concepts in students in order to activate their cognitive powers. Interpretation of the idea of developmental education in the works of I.G. Pestalozzi still has not lost its relevance.
Developing the idea of developing education and elementary education, the teacher became one of the founders formal education: studied subjects were considered by him more as a means of developing abilities than as a means of acquiring knowledge. This point of view of Pestalozzi was supported by F.A. Diesterweg and K.D. Ushinsky. The method of "elementary education" made it possible to simplify the methodology of primary education and expand its capabilities.
Priority value of I.G. Pestalozzi assigned education, he believed that education should give children from the people good labor training and at the same time develop their physical and spiritual strength, which in the future will help them get rid of poverty. Education should be nature-conforming, that is, it should be built in accordance with the natural course of development of human nature itself, starting from infancy. "The hour of a child's birth is the first hour of his education," Pestalozzi insisted. He believed that the general goal of education is most capable of solving its moral component. Among the tasks of moral education, the teacher singled out the development of high moral qualities in children, the formation of moral consciousness and convictions in the younger generation, their development through direct participation in good and useful deeds.
Trying to be consistent, I.G. Pestalozzi, speaking of educative education, singles out the initial element of a person's humanistic feelings. The first germ of morality, according to the teacher, is the very first and most natural feeling of a person - trust, love for the mother. With the help of education, the circle of objects of children's love should gradually expand (mother - sisters and brothers - teachers - schoolmates - people). Thus, according to Pestalozzi, school education is successful only when it cooperates with the family. Thus, I.G. Pestalozzi was the first to put forward the thesis about the activity of the child in the learning process.
In physical education, the main element is the desire of the child to move. The beginning of physical education, according to I.G. Pestalozzi is laid in the family when the mother gradually teaches the child to stand, take the first steps and walk. Joint exercises were put by the teacher as the basis of "natural home gymnastics", on the basis of which he proposed to build a system of school "elementary gymnastics".
Pestalozzi considered elementary labor training as an important part of the development of the child and proposed at the initial stage the assimilation of the “alphabet of skills”, which contributes to the development of physical strength and the acquisition of the necessary labor skills.
Pedagogical views and activities of I.G. The Pestalozzi influenced the further development of world pedagogical science and brought to life a whole pedagogical trend - Pestaloztsianism.
15. German teacher and educator, author of about 400 pedagogical works Friedrich Adolf Wilhelm Diesterweg(1790-1866) studied at the Heidelberg, Herborn and Tübing universities, received a Ph.D., was a teacher of a classical gymnasium, director of teacher's gymnasiums. For his huge contribution to the development of public education and the desire to unite the German teachers, he was called the "teacher of German teachers." According to the researchers of the heritage of F.A. Diesterweg (V.A. Rotenberg, S.A. Frumov, A.I. Piskunov and others), the merit of his theory lies not in special originality, but in the brilliant interpretation and popularization of the ideas of J.-J. Russo and I.G. Pestalozzi. The main pedagogical work of F.A. Diesterweg - "A Guide to the Education of German Teachers" (1835), in which the teacher theoretically substantiated and improved the ideas of developing and educating education. Diesterweg persistently advocated a secular school and non-interference of the church in the educational process, put forward the demand for a single folk (national) school.
According to F.A. Disterweg, three principles play a leading role in the organization of the upbringing process - natural conformity, cultural conformity and amateur performance. The use of the principle of conformity to nature in pedagogy presupposes the recognition of the value and expediency of the natural organization of man. Diesterweg emphasized that only knowing psychology and physiology, the teacher can ensure the harmonious development of children, he saw in psychology "the basis of the science of education", believed that a person has innate inclinations, which are characterized by a desire for development, included in the tasks of education the provision of this independent development . The teacher considered upbringing as a historical phenomenon and concluded that the state of culture of the people of each period of time also affects the development of the personality of pupils. Thus, the principle of cultural conformity means that in education it is necessary to take into account the conditions of the place and time in which a person was born and where he will live, because pedagogy is a part of human culture. The requirement of cultural conformity in F.A. Diesterweg means the need to take into account the historically achieved level of culture and the educational ideal of society in the content of education.
The teacher attributed the principle of children's amateur performance in the process of development to the universal educational principles. With the name of F.A. Diesterweg is associated with the creation of the foundations of developmental learning. Good, according to the teacher, can be considered only such training that stimulates the inclinations and initiative of a person, develops him mentally, morally, physically. Compliance with this principle ensures the developmental nature of training. Diesterweg understood self-activity as activity, initiative, and considered it the most important personality trait. In the development of children's amateur performance, he saw both the ultimate goal and an indispensable condition for any education, he determined the value of individual educational subjects based on how much they stimulate the mental activity of students. The teacher believed that successful learning is educational in nature.
F. Diesterweg developed rules covering all aspects of the learning process at school, drew attention to the decisive role of the teacher in the implementation of developing learning tasks, urged teachers to fight for the high culture of students' speech and constantly engage in self-education, free themselves from routine teaching methods, work creatively, never give up independence of thought.
16. The Development of Pedagogical Thought and Education in the 1740s–1760s associated with the name Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov(1711-1765) - scientist-encyclopedist, artist, poet. While working at the Academy of Sciences, the university and the gymnasium, he was actively involved in teaching, was a supporter of the class-lesson system of education, lectured, and created teaching aids. The scientist insisted on the need for a broad public education in Russia. His pedagogical views were based on the theories of Ya.A. Comenius, D. Locke, J.-J. Rousseau, in particular, on this basis, he formulated the principles of education, developed the basic methods of teaching in higher education, identified and substantiated some scientific categories of pedagogy and psychology. The main goal of the harmonious development of the personality of M.V. Lomonosov considered the upbringing of the “sons of the Fatherland”, based on taking into account the psychological characteristics of the child. The scientist believed that the soul of a child consists of a "lower" - sensual, egoistic and "higher" - spiritual, patriotic component, from here he deduced the goal of enlightenment, which was the scientific education of a person, which should lead the child to an understanding of the primacy of public benefit over personal interests. Lomonosov advocated the creation of a national education system, against the dominance of foreign teachers.
The third period in the development of domestic education was associated with the policy of Catherine II in the field of reforming educational institutions and the development of educational ideas. The first stage of Catherine's reforms in the field of education lasted from 1766 to 1782, when the idea of creating a general education school for the general population with a pedagogical, and not a professional or class, goal of education was finally formed. In 1779, the first Teacher's Seminary was opened at Moscow University. Later, in 1786, in her image, a teacher's seminary was created in St. Petersburg, which became the first higher educational pedagogical institution in Russia and trained teachers to work in various educational institutions. Teachers' seminaries taught the basics of science and teaching methods.
During the reign of Catherine II, new types of educational institutions appeared. In 1763, on the initiative of I.I. Betsky, an educational home was opened in Moscow, and later similar homes began to be created throughout Russia. Children from 5 to 20 years old were brought up in these institutions. It was assumed that a special educational environment would be created there to protect the child from the negative influences of society. In 1764–1765 educational institutions for boys were opened at the Academy of Arts and the Academy of Sciences, in 1864 - an educational institution of an increased type for the education of women - the Institute of Noble Maidens in St. industry. Common to all these educational institutions were the prohibition of corporal punishment, intimidation of children, an individual approach to the assessment of each student, and an orientation towards the development of the personality of the pupil. Catherine II herself was attentive to the issues of education and upbringing, studied the treatise of J.-J. Rousseau "Emil, or On Education", having accepted the idea of raising a child in isolation from society, was the author of pedagogical works "Selected Russian Proverbs" and "Continuation of the Primary Teaching". Thus, in the 1760-1780s. in Russia there were objective prerequisites for the creation of a uniform, harmonious state system of education on the basis of general education.
17. In 1813, Owen published his work "A New View of Society, or Experiments on the Formation of Human Character", in which he argues that a person's character is determined by environmental conditions independent of his will. The vices and shortcomings of people, their misdeeds are due to the environment in which they live. Man, he said, has never created his character and cannot create it. Owen believed that if you change the conditions of the environment and upbringing, you can form any character. The new organization of society will thus be achieved through the education and enlightenment of the people. New people will appear who will peacefully establish socialist relations.
The classics of Marxism highly appreciated Owen's ideas about the all-round development of man. In his experience of combining education with productive labor on an industrial basis, they saw the "embryo of the education of the future."
Robert Owen was the first to substantiate and implement the idea of social education of children from the first years of their life and created the world's first preschool institution for the children of the proletariat. In his educational institutions, mental and physical education was given, children were brought up in the spirit of collectivism. Many leading figures, in particular the Russian revolutionary democrats A. I. Herzen and N. A. Dobrolyubov, spoke very positively about these institutions. Owen not only expelled religion from his educational institutions, but also fought against religious beliefs that, in his opinion, prevented the true enlightenment of the people. The educational institutions he created for adult workers were also of great importance. Owen consistently and sharply criticized the capitalist system and education in bourgeois society.
However, he did not understand the role of the class struggle of the proletariat in the transformation of society, did not realize that it was possible to achieve a communist system and carry out rational education only as a result of a proletarian revolution. At the same time, Owen and other utopian socialists put forward a number of remarkable ideas, including in the field of education, which were critically used by K. Marx and F. Engels in creating a truly scientific system of communist education.
18. The pedagogical thought of the Renaissance is most clearly represented by the works of Italian, German and French humanist scholars. Undoubtedly, their works bear the imprint of national originality. Thus, the works of Italian teachers are characterized by a pronounced humanistic trend, the value of education and upbringing is assessed in their orientation towards universal ideals. In the writings of the German humanists, democratic tendencies are strongly manifested; ideas about universal education, the need to organize a mass public school merge with the idea of national education. French aristocratic humanism is filled with pedagogical ideas of the future: the need for free and individual education, the development of women's education, the importance of including physical labor in the education system.
French Renaissance humanism is represented by the name Francois Rabelais(1494–1553). A writer, humanist, a bright and extraordinary personality, he was born into the family of a lawyer, received an excellent education in a monastery, led the life of a wandering scientist, studied ancient languages, archeology, law, natural sciences, medicine, received a doctorate in medicine, in the last years of his life he was a priest . A very accurate description of the contradictory character of F. Rabelais, which determined the originality of his pedagogical views, was given by E.N. Medynsky: “A man who all his life was afraid of being burned at the stake, and at the same time openly mocked religion. A man who rebels against the church and twice begs Pope Paul III for remission of his sins and apostasy; first a monk, then a sworn enemy of monasticism and a white priest, then a doctor, a great old man of the Renaissance, finally a priest again; encyclopedist by education - philologist, physician, archaeologist, lawyer and naturalist; an author whose books are sometimes published under the auspices of the king, sometimes banned by parliament, but have tremendous success among the bourgeoisie of that time; a writer whose first books are filled with a passionate thirst for a healthy life, unbridled joy and hope for an improvement in social life with the help of royalty, and in the last parts of his novel, deep disappointment comes through; a writer with deep ideas and, in particular, with the best pages of world pedagogy; the largest pedagogue proclaiming the bottle as the god of the whole world and the inspirer of all culture; sometimes revolving in the royal circle, sometimes forced to flee from France - such is always restless, full of hobbies, extreme exaggerations, doubts and contradictions of Rabelais.
F. Rabelais expressed his pedagogical ideas in his novel “Gargantua and Pantagruel”, in which he sharply condemned the medieval school for its formal and purely verbal character, for scholastic teaching methods and opposed it with the program of education of a “free and well-behaved person” of the Renaissance. The pedagogical theory of F. Rabelais was based on his belief that a person by nature, regardless of origin, is predisposed to goodness, therefore humanistic values can be reflected in education and passed on from generation to generation. F. Rabelais expressed his ideals of a new upbringing and education, describing the upbringing of the hero of the novel: the whole day is divided into a system of classes alternating with games and physical exercises. The leading place in the curriculum is given to ancient and new languages, which open the way to understanding the works of ancient authors, scientific analysis of biblical texts. Therefore, in the novel, Gargantua studies Greek, Latin, Arabic, Hebrew, "ignorance of which is unforgivable for anyone who wants to be known as an educated person." An important place in education is given to the natural scientific knowledge of man and nature on the basis of the "seven free arts". F. Rabelais was a supporter of visual teaching methods, so the main way of mastering knowledge is the direct observation of a young person of the world around him.
F. Rabelais developed the idea of individual education, since education, carried out through individual lessons of an educator with a student, makes it possible to solve the problem of combining education and moral education. Rabelais attached particular importance to physical education, in which he required a combination of physical exercises with vigorous activity and the development of crafts. His hero “threw a spear, a dart, a bar, a stone, a horn, a halberd, pulled huge crossbows with muscle strength, aimed at the eye from a musket, pointed a cannon, shot at a target. He swam in deep water face down, supine, on his side, with his whole body, his arm outstretched, he climbed like a cat on trees; hunted, jumped, fenced. The teacher put forward the requirement of alternating study and rest, physical and mental activities. Later, the global ideas of F. Rabelais were developed in the theories of M. Montaigne, Ya.A. Comenius, D. Locke, J.-J. Russo, I.G. Pestalozzi and others.
Lawyer, author of the famous work "Experiments", which reflected advanced humanistic views on the upbringing and education of children, Michel Montaigne(1553-1592) considered the child, his natural features, inclinations, abilities that make up the individuality, as the main guideline in the activities of the educator. Criticizing the school of his day, which retained many features of scholastic education, Montaigne demands that the organization of education be guided by the physical characteristics of children and, above all, not undermine their health. Proclaiming experience as the basis of all knowledge, the teacher in the teaching methodology suggests first introducing children to specific objects and only then to the words denoting these objects, which, according to M. Montaigne, should form an interest in learning based on understanding knowledge. Subsequently, such a logic of knowledge presentation will be considered in the theory of Ya.A. Comenius.
M. Montaigne paid much attention to the development of children's independence, putting forward an imperative requirement: “I don’t want one teacher to work and always speak in the class. Let the students work, observe, talk.” The teacher should develop the mental abilities and independent thinking skills of students, and not "pouring knowledge like water into a funnel." The thinker spoke out against corporal punishment, widespread in schools, opposing violence to the ideal of free and joyful learning, in moral education he proposed to combine gentleness with severity, but not severity, insisted on the harmonious development of the spiritual and physical powers of the child, expressed thoughts about the need to learn the native language.
19. the Czech pedagogue and philosopher became the most important figure in the pedagogy of modern times Jan Amos Comenius(1592-1670), who developed many pedagogical problems, created the first scientific theory in the history of pedagogy - didactics, subordinated to the idea of the all-round development of the individual. Ya.A. Comenius was born in the Czech Republic in the family of a priest of the community of Czech brothers, received his primary education at a brotherly school, then studied at a Latin school, graduated from the Herborn Academy and Heidelberg University. All his life he was engaged in educational activities, created a number of pedagogical works and textbooks for the school.
The main work of his life is the "General Council for the Correction of Human Affairs", in which, as in his other works, the main idea is panso-phia - universal wisdom, which means "knowledge of all things" that really exist in the world. According to the teacher, the possibility of improving social life and delivering society from injustice lies in improving the system of upbringing and education of people, since this will allow each person and, as a result, the whole world to improve. In this regard, the teacher throughout his life tried to create a program of general education and a comprehensive method of personality formation, based on a continuous process of improving everyone and everything through creative work. In the twentieth century this postulate of Ya.A. Comenius was developed in the theory and practice of lifelong education.
The idea of the universality of education in the theory of Ya.A. Comenius has not only a philosophical, but also a practical orientation, its implementation is developed in detail in the Great Didactics and the Rules of a Well-Organized School. In these works, the teacher outlined the universal theory of "teaching everyone everything", based on the principle of natural conformity. Man, as part of nature, is subject to its universal laws; accordingly, education should be determined by the natural nature of things and allow learning quickly, easily and firmly. Based on this, the education of a person should begin at an early age and continue through adolescence. To implement this idea, Ya.A. Comenius, for the first time in the history of pedagogy, developed a scientifically substantiated integral system of schools in accordance with age periodization and outlined the content of education at each level of education. The teacher advocated universal education and believed that in any well-organized society there should be schools for the education of children of both sexes.
The first step in the project of Ya.A. Comenius had a maternal school (from birth to 6 years). At the stage of preschool education, when the child learns information about natural phenomena, people's lives, receives basic knowledge of geography, astronomy, the teacher called labor and moral education the main areas of education. At the stage of primary education (from 6 to 12 years old), the mother tongue school follows, in which children are introduced to a rather wide range of knowledge in their native language, which goes beyond the traditional framework of modern teacher education. Ya.A. Comenius proposed to include in the program of this school the native language, arithmetic, the beginnings of geometry, geography, "the beginnings of cosmography", the beginnings of social and political knowledge, crafts, psalms, catechism, and other sacred texts. The mother tongue school was intended for the joint education of all children. Secondary school in the Ya.A. Comenius is a gymnasium, or a Latin school (from 12 to 18 years old), which should be opened in every city for the education of young men who have achieved success in education. The teacher included the "seven liberal arts", physics, geography, history, the beginnings of medical knowledge, etc. in the gymnasium program. In the structure of the academy, traditional university faculties were singled out, and the purpose of its creation was to communicate pansophic knowledge.
In the organization of training Ya.A. Comenius initially preferred the subject principle and was the author of a number of textbooks on physics, geometry, geodesy, geography, astronomy, and history. Subsequently, he came to the conclusion that a person should receive system knowledge about the world, and created a textbook of a new type - "The Open Door of Languages and All Sciences", in which the phenomena of the surrounding world were given in their integrity and unity from the standpoint of various sciences. The learning process should be based on clear principles.
1. Ya.A. Comenius promoted visual learning, which was reflected in the “golden rule” of didactics: “Everything that is possible should be provided for perception by sight, heard by hearing, smells by smell, subject to taste by taste, accessible to touch by touch. If any objects can be perceived by several senses at once, let them be grasped at once by several senses.
3. Education should evoke in children the joy of mastering educational material. The teacher demanded that the educational material be arranged "by age, so that only that was offered for study that was accessible to the ability of perception." In this regard, the clarity of teaching was of particular importance, consisting in a clear explanation of all provisions without much delving into details, but in a clearly traceable logic.
4. The strength of knowledge is based on the independence and activity of students in the learning process. “In my students, I always develop independence in observation, in speech, in practice and in application, as the only basis for achieving solid knowledge,” Ya.A. Comenius.
Allocated by Ya.A. Comenius principles served as the core of a new universal classroom training system, which the teacher theoretically substantiated and proposed the rules for its implementation in practice. Until today, the class-lesson system remains the basis of school education, which can be considered an indisputable merit of Comenius. The key concepts of this system are: a) Class, which implies a constant number of students of approximately the same age and level of knowledge, who, under the general guidance of a teacher, strive towards one common educational goal for all; b) lesson, which implies a clear correlation of all types of educational work with a specific time period (academic year, quarter, holidays, school week, school day - from 4 to 6 lessons, lesson, break). An important link in the developed Ya.A. The process of consolidating and repeating knowledge becomes the Comenius system, for which the teacher suggested using regular homework and exams.
Issues of education and training Ya.A. Comenius considered in inseparable unity, giving priority to the learning process. The teacher paid attention to the study of the main categories of education - goals, content and methods. According to the principle of conformity to nature, education should be based on the analysis of the laws of a person's spiritual life and the coordination of all pedagogical influences with them. The purpose of education, according to Comenius, is to prepare a person for eternal life. He saw the path to eternal bliss in the knowledge of the external world, in the ability to control things and oneself, in raising oneself to the source of all things - God. Thus, the Comenius system singled out the components of education - scientific education, moral and religious education. The teacher saw the goal of education not only in the acquisition of knowledge, but also in the system of moral qualities, of which he considered justice, courage and moderation to be the most important. In the process of education Ya.A. Comenius assigned a decisive role to the personal example of the teacher, and at school he attached great importance to discipline.
20. French philosopher and enlightener, writer Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712-1778) considered it necessary to change the social order based on unjust inequality through education and proper education, which is the backbone of any form of government and therefore valuable to society; well-being of the state and every person depends on properly organized education. He outlined his theory of "free natural education" in the treatise "Emil, or On Education" (1762).
Rejecting the traditional system of education, J.-J. Rousseau believed that upbringing would contribute to the development of the child only if it acquired a natural nature-like character, if it was connected with the natural development of the individual. Education is given to a person by nature as an internal development of the abilities and organs of a person, education from people is learning how to use this development, education from the side of things is the acquisition by a person of his own experience regarding the objects that give him education. All these factors, according to the teacher, should act in concert. A child is born sensually receptive, receives impressions through the senses, as his susceptibility increases as he grows, knowledge about the environment expands under the influence of adults. This approach J.-J. Rousseau was fundamentally new for the pedagogy of that time, since the traditional school rejected both individual and age differences.
For Rousseau, education is the art of developing the true freedom of man. The desire for nature in the teacher is manifested in the rejection of the artificiality and attractiveness of everything natural, simple, immediate. In the pedagogical system of J.-J. Rousseau places the child at the center of the pedagogical process. However, the educator must accompany the child in all his experiences, direct his formation, but never impose his will on him. In teaching, it is important not to adapt knowledge to the level of the student, but to correlate them with his interests and experience. It is important to organize the transfer of knowledge in such a way that the child himself takes on the task of obtaining it. The teacher believed that different education systems were needed for boys and girls: nature assigns an active, leading role to men in the life of society, therefore Rousseau attaches more importance to their upbringing; women should be brought up differently, because they have a different purpose in society, endowed with opposite properties and inclinations. The teacher argued that “the natural state of a woman is dependence,” so a girl should be brought up for a man, able to adapt to her husband’s opinions and judgments, and accept his religion.
In the interpretation of training and education, J.-J. Rousseau argues that they are inseparable, since they are connected by a single goal: to teach a child about life, to raise a person who is independent, sane, friendly to people, who feels confident in any situation. The upbringing of a child should not take place in a school, which, being part of a corrupted society, is not capable of forming a natural person, but in the bosom of nature, in a country house under the guidance of an enlightened mentor and teacher. In the most general form, the requirements for the personality of the educator were reduced to broad knowledge in the sciences and crafts, knowledge of the laws of "human nature" and the individual characteristics of the pupil, possession of the secrets of pedagogical art.
J.-J. Rousseau proposes such an organization of the upbringing process, which is based on the age periodization he derived, where tasks and means of upbringing were provided for each age period. At an early age (from birth to 2 years), the main goal of education should be physical development, which goes along with the development of the senses and speech. From a very early age, it is necessary to give the child freedom in movement, it is unacceptable to accelerate the process of mastering speech.
The teacher calls the age from 2 to 12 years the period of “sleep of the mind” and considers the main goal of education to be “the development of external feelings”. J.-J. Rousseau expressed the conviction that during this period of his development, the child is already aware of himself as a person, relatively independent, but not able to reason, therefore, in education, instructions should be abandoned. During this period, it is necessary to continue the physical education of the child, intellectual development is not yet available to him, but he can still acquire knowledge on his own, by observing wildlife and his own experience. The mentor is obliged not to teach science, but to skillfully and thoughtfully create situations that, awakening in the child a desire to acquire this or that knowledge, would force him to independently discover them. It is necessary to gradually initiate him into the relationship of a person with the outside world and one should not give the child books, except for "Robinson Crusoe", in which an example of "natural education" is brilliantly described. It is especially important to impress upon him that to be free means to yield to necessity.
At the age of 12–15, according to J.-J. Rousseau, a person enters the most favorable time of life, the most suitable for a full-fledged intellectual and labor education. The organization of mental education is based on natural curiosity. Rousseau proposed a research way of obtaining knowledge, which is possible when the object or phenomenon being studied is of interest to the child. The teacher abandoned the subject construction of education and proceeded from the cognitive interests of the pupil, teaching him the ability to independently apply knowledge in life. At first, the child's curiosity is caused by things and phenomena that directly surround him, therefore, first of all, he must be introduced to geography and astronomy. The teacher attached particular importance to work, which not only cultivates virtue, but also allows you to maintain an independent position in society. In labor education, the child learns to respect the common man, begins to appreciate the results of labor. The child must invent and create the tools necessary for the craft on his own, then he will be not just a craftsman, but a researcher, a thinker.
From 15 to 22 years old, the “period of storms and passions” begins, at this age J.-J. Rousseau assumes the moral education of the young man in society. According to the teacher, such qualities as a sense of duty, citizenship, patriotism, compassion for people should be brought up. Returning to society, the young man remains free inside, because in previous periods independence from social prejudices and delusions was formed in him. The ways of moral education are communication with good people and the study of history, in which there are enough examples of noble, moral, patriotic behavior. By the age of 22-24, natural education should be completed, a person begins an independent life, he should marry, focusing on the advice of a mentor in choosing a bride.
The views of J.-J. Rousseau had a great influence on the development of the theory and practice of education in the XVIII-XIX centuries. and continue to be relevant to this day.